An often overlooked characteristic of the Bible is its rich and skillful use of different types of literature. Far from being a mere catalog of truth propositions, the Bible is a literary masterpiece that abounds in historical narrative, poetry, proverbs, prophecy, satire, oratory, biography, exposition, apocalyptic, and epistles. This paper will explore the nature of epistolary literature in general, highlight some aspects of epistolary literature in the Bible, and set forth basic rules for a proper interpretation of the New Testament epistles.
An epistle is “a form of written communication between two persons or parties, private or official.” 1 At the turn of the twentieth-century, Adolf Deissmann popularized the notion that there is a distinction to be made between a “letter” and an “epistle.” As noted by D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo, and Leon Morris, Deissmann argued that while an epistle was carefully composed and public, a letter was less studied, more informal, and private. 2 However, whereas in theory such a distinction may exist, in practice the exegete should not woodenly impose such a presupposition when seeking to interpret the sacred text. 3
Though epistolary literature is among some of the oldest forms of written communication, its usage surged during the Greco-Roman period due primarily to the increase of scribal learning, the demand for carefully worded documents related to commerce and travel, government, legal, and military administration, and philosophical musings. 4 During this time, epistles developed a recognizable form that typically included an address, a greeting, a body, and a conclusion. 5
Though no book of the Old Testament as a whole can be considered epistolary in nature, texts embedded within larger contexts take on the form of an epistle, particularly in Ezra and Nehemiah. 6 In contrast, twenty-one New Testament books, comprising approximately thirty-five percent of the total material, falls into the epistolary category. Everett F. Harrison explains the high incidence of epistolary literature found in the New Testament: “In the period of the early church it was the spread of the gospel to widely separated localities and the necessity of keeping in touch with the congregations established there that called forth epistles from the leaders of the church.” 7
New Testament epistles bear similarity to their secular counterparts, as it would be only natural for the New Testament writers to employ forms of communication familiar to their audiences. And while the New Testament letters do not follow set patterns, in some places the typical Greco-Roman form is clearly evidenced (e.g. Acts 15:23-29). Similarities between secular and New Testament letters are rather general in nature. Furthermore, as Carson, Moo, and Morris point out, the differences between the sacred letters and other ancient letters “are probably the product of Jewish influence and especially the special situation and purpose of their writing.” 8Highlighting the theme of epistolary purpose, literary expert Leland Ryken observes that the New Testament letters “are occasional letters evoked by a specific situation, not formal essays on theological topics.” 9 Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuart echo this point, stressing that a correct understanding of the “occasional context” is vital to a correct interpretation of the message. 10
But while variety of form is evident, there is still a discernible pattern in the New Testament epistles, typically consisting of (1) an opening or salutation, (2) a prayer of thanksgiving, (3) the body of the letter, (4) moral exhortations and, (5) a benediction or closing. 11 An example of a deviation from this pattern would include the absence of a prayer of thanksgiving in Galatians, 1 Timothy, and Titus. Also, in 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, and 1 Peter the prayer is more doxological in nature than in many of the other epistles. 12 Moreover, the majority of Hebrews has little resemblance to an epistle, though chapter thirteen includes moral exhortations and a benediction. James and 2 Peter, according to Fee and Stuart, “are the closest things in the New Testament to ‘epistles,’” while 1 John “looks very much like the body of a letter with all the formal elements shorn off.” 13 The main point is that while a basic pattern is discernible, the form that individual New Testament letters take is not dictated by the Greco-Roman pattern but rather by the situation that occasioned its composition, the style and purpose of the composer, and the needs of the immediate audience to whom it was written.
Another feature of New Testament epistles is their use of various literary genres within their overall framework. Ryken observes that the “concrete vividness” found in the poetry and narrative sections is also evidenced in the epistles, intermingled with theological propositions (e.g. 2 Tim. 2:3-6). 14 The writers of the epistles make use of such literary devices as metaphor, simile, allusion, pun, paradox, and irony to clarify and illustrate their message. 15 An excellent example of the skillful use of metaphor is found in Ephesians 2:19-22: “Now, therefore, you are no longer strangers and foreigners, but fellow citizens with the saints and members of the household of God, having been built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the chief cornerstone, in whom the whole building, being fitted together, grows into a holy temple in the Lord, in whom you also are being built together for a dwelling place of God in the Spirit.” Ryken sums up the obvious: “The passage is thoroughly theological, but the language is poetic. Almost everything is expressed through metaphors.” 16
Additionally, many other literary genres and devices are found within the New Testament epistles, including proverbs (1 Cor. 15:33; Gal. 5:9), liturgical formulas, creeds, and hymns (Gal. 5:14; Phil. 2:6-11; Col. 1:15-20; 1 Tim. 3:16), systematic lists of vices and virtues (Rom. 1:29-31; Gal. 5:22-23), rhetorical questions (Rom. 8:31), and paradox (2 Cor. 12:10). 17 Ancient creeds recorded within an epistle sometimes add apologetic value to the writer’s argument. An example of this is found in Paul’s introduction to his defense and explanation of the resurrection: “For I delivered to you first of all that which I also received: that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, and that He was buried, and that He rose again the third day according to the Scriptures , and that He was seen by Cephas, then by the twelve”(1 Cor. 15:3-5, emphasis added). This creed is believed by many scholars to trace back as far as the resurrection event itself, rebutting the notion widely accepted among some critics that the resurrection story was merely a late-developing myth.
As noted above, the rise of epistolary literature during the Greco-Roman era was partly due to the increase in scribal learning. Because illiteracy was fairly common and writing materials were inconvenient to keep, scribes were often a very important element in the composition of epistles. So common was the use of scribes that “a letter written with the author’s hand was especially prized.” 18 Concerning this, Harrison writes: “It is likely that the author of Third John wrote the letter himself, judging from verse 13. Paul wrote Galatians 6:11 to the end in his own hand, according to his testimony. Whether he wrote a complete epistle in this fashion is difficult to say. It is likely that his habit was to use a secretary, then append his own signature (cf. 2 Thess. 3:17; 1 Cor. 16:21; Col. 4:18).” 19
The use of scribes raises some intriguing questions. Do the words of the letter belong to the author or to the scribe? Was it possible for the scribe to mis-communicate the biblical author’s intended message? Harrison points out two safeguards against scribes manipulating the text. First, the writers of the New Testament epistles were not dependent upon the scribal services of unscrupulous pagans, but rather they employed believers “who no doubt counted it a privilege to assist in this fashion (Rom. 16:22).” 20 Second, the discernability of an author’s style, particularly a Pauline style, “gives assurance that the use of these helpers has not placed a barrier between the writer and the reader.” 21 In sum, while scribes were sometimes used by the New Testament writers, their presence has no bearing on the integrity, accuracy, or inspiration of the text.
Another important issue for New Testament epistles is the problem of canonicity. Donald Guthrie acknowledges that a “great quantity of pseudepigraphic literature [existed] in Graeco-Roman, Jewish and Christian environments.” 22 Moreover, “some scholars still regard certain Epistles as pseudepigrapha, namely Colossians, Ephesians, 2 Thessalonians, and the Pastoral Epistles.” 23 And because pseudonymity was a widespread and accepted device in the ancient, secular world, many of those same scholars have assumed that the practice was also accepted by the church. 24Carson, Moo, and Morris, however, point out the crucial importance of “apostolicity” as a main criterion for discovering canonical writings, noting that “the Fathers universally reject pseudonymity as an acceptable literary category for documents bearing the authority of Scripture.” 25 Thus, while pseudepigrapha was accepted among the pagans, a New Testament epistle required evidence of apostolic authorship for inclusion in the canon. For precisely this reason, segments of the church were slow to accept Hebrews and Revelation. 26
Keys to interpreting epistolary literature include uncovering the occasional context, discerning their historical context, and understanding them in paragraph units. First, as has already been pointed out, the epistles were communication devices evoked by situations in which the recipient had a pressing need for clarity, correction, comfort, or the like. As Harrison points out, very often “Paul’s letters were written in response to missives sent to him by various churches.” 27 Simply put, the interpreter must understand the questions that are being raised by the recipient before he can understand the answers that are provided by the author. 28 Second, related to the need to understand the occasion is the need to understand the historical setting. What is going on in the recipient church? What problems are they facing? Is there political pressure? Religious persecution? Have false teachings invaded and corrupted the congregation? Many unfortunate misinterpretations have been caused by a failure to understand the historical context in which the epistle was written. Finally, in order to understand the argument of an epistle, it is imperative that the interpreter think in paragraph units, not simply read individual verses divorced from their literary setting.29 While this rule is true for nearly all types of literature, it is especially true in epistolary literature when often the writer is carefully articulating a doctrinal position.
Reading and interpreting the Bible as literature is a practice that is finding more acceptance in recent times. One of the first steps for the reader, however, is simply to recognize the various literary forms that the Bible uses, such as epistles. Epistles were an effective form of communication which the biblical writers employed to instruct the growing and scattered churches of the first century. Owing to divine inspiration, twenty-centuries later the New Testament epistles are no less effective in their power to instruct individuals and churches. But getting to the heart of the message requires a recognition and appreciation for the literary vehicle through which the word of God is delivered to His people.
FOOTNOTES
1:J. S. Lown, “Epistle,” in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, vol. 1 (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1982), 122-25.
2:D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo, and Leon Morris, An Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992), 233.
3:Lown, 122-25.
4:Ibid.
5:Carson, Moo, and Morris, 232.
6:Lown, 122-25.
7:Everett F. Harrison, Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971), 253-54.
8:Carson, Moo, and Morris, 233.
9:Leland Ryken, How to Read the Bible as Literature, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984), 157.
10:Gordon D. Fee and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth, 2nd ed., Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993), 48.
11:Ryken, 155.
12:Fee and Stuart, 47.
13:Ibid.
14:Ryken, 20.
15:Ibid., 27.
16:Ibid., 28.
17:Ibid., 157.
18:Ibid.
19:Ibid.
20:Ibid., 255.
21:Ibid.
22:Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction (Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 1970), 671.
23:Ibid.
24:Ibid.
25:Carson, Moo, and Morris, 494-95.
26:Ibid., 495.
27:Harrison, 257.
28:Fee and Stuart, 48.
29:Ryken, 156.